مقاله لیزر

دسته بندي : فنی و مهندسی » برق، الکترونیک، مخابرات
 مقاله لیزر

نوع فایل: word
قابل ویرایش 224 صفحه

مقدمه:
ليزر.... از اعجاز آميزترين موهبتهاي طبيعت است كه براي مصارف گوناگون سودمند است. و يكي از پديده هاي شگرف قرن بيستم كشف و توسعه ليزر (laser) است. قرن بيستم را شايد بتوان به جاي قرن اتم و يا قرن ماشين, «قرن ليزر» هم ناميد. اين اختراع شگرف و پردامنه فيزيكي روز به روز توسعه بيشتري مي يابد و كاربردهاي آن در زمينه هاي مختلف بسيار متعدد است. در حوزه پزشكي نيز در حال حاضر ليزرها در درمان انواع مختلفي از بيماريها شركت داده مي شوند. اگرچه ليزرهاي باليني جديد و كاربردهاي آنها احتمالاً در حال گذران دوران نوباوگي پزشكي ليزري هستند ولي در آينده نه چندان دور ليزرهاي ديگري پديد خواهند آمد كه جايگاه خود را در بيمارستانها و مراكز پزشكي خواهند يافت بنابراين تحقيق علمي آينده به اندازه كاربردهاي باليني حاصل از آن, زيربنايي خواهند بود.
به علت تنوع سيستم هاي ليزر موجود و تعداد پارامترهاي فيزيكي آنها و همينطور علاقه چندين گروه تحقيقاتي در واقع انواع مختلف ليزر بصورت ابزار بي رقيبي در پزشكي مدرن درآمده اند و اگرچه كاربردهاي باليني در ابتدا محدود به چشم پزشكي بوده اند، ولي امروزه قابل ملاحظه ترين و جاافتاده ترين جراحي ليزري در خصوص انعقاد خونریزی عروق با استفاده از ليزر يون آرگون Ar+ است. لذا تقريباً تمام شاخه هاي جراحي پزشكي معطوف به اين قضيه شده اند. البته نبايد اين گفته را به عنوان انتقاد برشمرد ولي اشكالات زيادي در برخي از موارد ايجاد شده است،‌ بخصوص در زمينه تحريك زيستي biostimulation. لذا به نظر اين بنده حقير لازمست براي كسب پيروزيهاي جديد، محققان عزم خود را در ساير زمينه ها پژوهش پزشكي ليزر و تكنيك هاي فني و حرفه اي مربوط به آنها نيز مجدانه جذب كنند و در پي وسعت دادن ابعادي به اين امر مهم باشند. البته در كل، بسياري از تكنيكهاي ليزري واقعاً مفيد، كه از لحاظ باليني محقق شده اند، به كمك انواع دانشمندان قرن حاضر توسعه يافته اند. اين روشهاي معالجه توسط محققان ديگر تأييد شده و در مجلات علمي معتبر به نحوه مناسب به نوشتار درآمده است. حتي اخيراً در رابطه با كاربردهاي اوليه ليزر كه اساساً بر نتايج درماني متمركز شده بودند, چندين روش جالب تشخيصي نيز اضافه شده است. براي نمونه مي توان تشخيص تومورها توسط رنگهاي فلورسانس و يا تشخيص پوسيدگي دندان بوسيله تحليل طيف سنجي بارقه پلاسمايي حاصل از ليزر را نام برد.
همانطور كه ميدانيم در اواخر دهه 1960 ليزر در زمينه هاي پزشكي بکار رفت. امروزه تعداد بسياري از روش هاي كاربرد ليزر در سراسر جهان بكارگرفته مي شود. بيشتر اين روشها متعلق به خانواده جراحي با كمترين تهاجم (MIS) minimally invasive surgery مي باشند. اين اصطلاح جديد که در دهه حاضر پديد آمده است به تكنيك هاي جراحي اي اطلاق مي شود كه در آنها تماس با بدن و خونريزي صورت نمي گيرد. لذا اين دو مشخصه بطور عمده باعث شده اند كه ليزر به عنوان يك تيغ جراحي و وسيله درمان جهاني بكار گرفته شود. در واقع بسياري از بيماران و همچنين جراحان بر اين باورند كه ليزر وسيله اي اعجاب انگيز است. البته اين شيوه تفكر منجر به نگرشهاي گمراه كننده و توقع هاي نابجا نيز شده است. در حقيقت قضاوت دقيق در مورد پيشرفتهاي جديد هميشه لازم است. مثلاً وقتي كه يك روش درمان توسعه ليزر معرفي مي شود, تا هنگام تأييد شدن آن توسط مطالعات مستقل ديگر، نبايد مورد قبول واقع شود. اثرات ناشي از ليزر همانطور كه مي دانيم بسيار متعدداند. بيشتر آنها را مي توان بطور علمي توضيح داد. البته برخي اثرات كه براي يك درمان ويژه مفيد هستند, براي موارد ديگر ممكن است خطرناك باشند بعنوان مثال گرم كردن يك بافت سرطاني توسط پرتوي ليزر مي تواند منجر به اثر مطلوب نكروز (تخريب) تومور شود. و بالعكس بكار بردن پرتوي ليزري براي قطع خونريزي شبكيه چشم با پارامترهاي فوق، مي تواند منجر به سوختن خود شبكيه و نابینایي غيرقابل برگشت شود. به هرحال با توجه به تسهيلاتي كه پديده ليزر در امر تشخيص و درمان در علم پزشكي فراهم نموده, آينده روشن تري را مي توان براي نسل بشر پيش بيني كرد.

فهرست مطالب:
پیشگفتار
مقدمه
تاریخچه لیزر
تعریف لیزر
فیزیک لیزر
مبانی نظری لیزر
انواع لیزر
معرفی لیزرهای توان پایین
اثرات لیزرهای کم قدرت
مکانیسم برهمکنش بافت – لیزر
درمان فتودینامیک
مقایسه لیزرهای توان بالا با لیزرهای توان پایین
روش های کاربرد لیزر توان پایین
رویکرد بالینی لیزرهای توان پایین
کاربرد در فیزیوتراپی
کاربرد در دندانپزشکی
کاربرد در پزشکی (افتالموژی – اورولوژی – دستگاه گوارش – دستگاه تنفس)
کاربرد در پوست و اعصاب
عوارض احتمالی درمان با لیزرهای کم توان
سایر روش های درمان بالینی
خطرات جانبی لیزرها و نکات ایمنی و حفاظتی
نتيجه گيري
مراجع

منابع و مأخذ:
1) مجموعه مقالات کنفرانس ملی کاربردهای لیزر در پزشکی و مهندسی پزشکی دانشگاه صنعتی امیرکبیر دانشکده مهندسی پزشکی.
Proceedings of National conference on Applications of Lasers in Medicine and Biomedical Engineering Amir Kabir University of Technology Faculty of Biomedical Engineering
2) فتودینامیک درمانی بر هم کنش بافت ماده شیمیایی ، زاما، 1378، سال اول، شماره دوم، 37-32.
3) مبانی و کاربردهای تأثیرات متقابل لیزر- بافت - تألیف مارکوف اچ. نیمز سال 1964.
Laser – Tissue interactions Fundamentals and applications
Markof H. Niemz / springer- verlag, 1996
4) لیزر در پزشکی و فیزیوتراپی – تألیف عطاء الله هادی (انجمن فیزیوتراپی ایران)، با همکاری ویرایش علمی دکتر اکبر حریری (سازمان انرژی اتمی ایران)
Laser in Medicine and physiothraphy
5) کتاب راهنمای ایمنی لیزر (چاپ نهم 1993) – این کتاب توسط مؤسسه لیزر آمریکا، اورلاندو ، فلوریدا، ایالت متحده تألیف و چاپ گردید.
D.H.sliney
6) اصول لیزر – تألیف اوراسیو سوولتو – ترجمه دکتر اکبر حریری- حسین گل بنی.
Principles of lasers
orazio svelto/plenum press 1982

1-Abergel, R.p. , Meeker , C.A , Dwyer , R. M. , Lesavoy , M.A.(1984): Nonthermal effects of Nd:YAG laser on biological functions of human skin fibro blast in culture laser. Surg. med. 3, 279-284.
2- Barr, H, Bown , S.G. , N., Boulo,PB. (1989) : photodaynamic theraphy for colorectal disease. Int. J. colorectal Dis. 4, 15-19.
3- Barr , H , krasner , N, Boulos , P.B. , chatlani , P., Bown , S.G.(1990): photodynamic theraphy for colorectal cancer : a qunantitative pilot study. Br. J. surg. 77,93-96.
4- Benson , R.C(1985) : Treatment of diffuse carcinoma in situ by whole bladder hematoporphyrin derivative photodynamic theraphy. J. urol.134,675-678.
5- Berns, M.W. , Dahlman , A , Johnson F., Burns , R.,sperling , D.,Guiltinan, M., siemans, A.,walter, R., wright. R., Hammer – Wilson , M.,wile , A.(1982) : Invitro cellular effects of hematoporphyrin derivative. cancer Res. 42,2325-2329.
6- Bille , J.F., Dreher , A.w.,zinser, G. (1990) : scanning laser tomography of the living human eye. In:Noninvasive diagnostic techniques in ophthalmology (Ed. : Masters, D.). springer – verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New york.
7- Boulton , M., Marshall, I. (1986): He-Ne laser stimulation of human fibroblast proliferation and attachment in vitro. Lasers life sci.2,125-134.
8- Camps, J.L., powers , S.k., Beckman , W.c. , Brown, y.T. , wesismann, R.M.(1985) : photodynamic theraphy of prostate cancer : an in vitro study. J.urol. 134.1222-1226.
9- Carrillo, J.s., Calatayud , J.Manso, F.J., Barberia , E., Martinez , J.M., Donado, M.(1990) : A randomized double – blind clinical trial on effectiveness of helium- neon laser in the prevention of Pain , swelling and trismus after removal of impacted third molars. Int. Dent.J.40,31-36.
10- Castro, D.J. , Abergel , R.P. , Meeker, C.,Dwyer , R.M. , Lesavoy , M.A. , uitto, J.(1983) : Effects of the Nd:YAG laser on DNA synthesis and collagen production in human skin fibroblast cultures. Ann. Plast. Surg. 11,214-222.
11- Cheong, W.-F., prahl , S.A. , Welch , A.J.(1990) : A review of the optical propertie of biological tessues. IEEE J.Qu. Electron. QE-26, 2166-2185.
12- Docchio, F., Regondi , p. , capon , M.R.C. , Melleri, J.(1988a) : study of the temporal and spatial dynamics of plasmas induced in liquids by nanosecond Nd:YAG laser pulses 1 : Analysis of the plasma starting times. Appl. Opt. 27, 3661-3668 ; 2:plasma luminescenece and shieling. Appl. Opt. 27,3669-3674.
13- Dolphin, D.(1979) : the porphyrins I-VII A cademic press, New york.
14- Dörschel, k., Berlien, H.p., Brodzinski , T.,Helfmann, J., müller, G.J., scholz,c. (1988) : primary results in the laser lithotripsy using a frequency doubled Q-switched Nd:YAG laser. in : laser lithotripsy- clinical use and technical aspects (Ed. : Steiner.R.). springer – verlag. Belin, Heidelberg. New york.
15- Dyson, M. , Young, s.(1986) : Effect of laser therapy on wound contraction and cellularity in mice. Lasers med. Sci. 1,125-130.
16- Firey , p.A.Rodgers, M.A.J. (1987) : photoproperties of a silicon naphthalocyanine : a potential photosensitizer for PDT. Photochem. Photobiol. 45,535-538.
17- Feyh, J.,Gottz , A.,Müller, w. , königsberger , R.,kastenbauer , E. (1990) : photodynamic therapy in head and neck surgery. J.photochem. photobiol. 7, 355-358.
18- Fleischer, D., sivak , M.V.(1985) : Endoscopic Nd:YAG laser therapy as palliation for esophagastric cancer. Gastroentorology 89. 827-831.
19- Foote, C.s (1968) : Mechanisms of photosensitized oxidation. Science 162, 963-970.
20- Garden, J.M. , polla, L.L. , Tan, o.T.(1988) : the treatment of port- wine stains by pulsed dye laser. Arch.Dermatol. 124, 889-896.
21- Ginsburg, R., Wexler, L. , Mitchell, R.S. , profit, D. (1985) : percutaneuos transluminal laser angioplasty for treatment of peripheral vascular disease. Radiology 156, 619-624.
22- Garrison. B.J. srinivasan, R.(1985) : Laser ablation of organic polymers : microscopic models for photochemical and thermal processes, J.Appl. phys. 57, 2902-2914.
23- Goldman, L., Hornby,p. Mayer , R., Golman , B. (1964) : Impact of the laser on dental caries. Nature 203,417.
24- Gossner, L., Borrmann, J., Ernst, H., sroka, R., Hahn , E.G. , EII. C. (1994) : photodynamiche therapie. Laser medizin 10,183-189.
25- Graaff , R., Dassel, A.C.M. , koelink, N.H. , demul, F.F.M. Aarnoudse , J.G., zijlstar, W.G.(1993 b) : optical properties of human dermis in vitro and in vivo. Appl. Opt. 32, 435-447.
26- Groenhuis, R.A.J. , Fewerda, H.A. , Ten Bosh , J.J.(1983) : scattering and absorption of turbid materials determined from reflection measurements. Appl. Opt. 22, 2456-2462.
27- Hale, G.M. , Querry, M.R. (1973) : optical constants of water in the 200-nm to 200m wavelength regione. Appl. Opt. 12, 555-563.
28- Harty, J.I. , Amin, M. , wieman, T.J.tseng, M.T. , Ackerman , D., Broghamer , w. (1989) : complications of whole bladder dihematoporphyrin ether photodynamic therapy. J.urol. 141, 1341-1346.
29- Hayata, Y. , kato, H. , konaka, C. , ono, J., takizawa , N.(1982) : Hematoporphyrin derivative and laser photoradiation in the treatment of lung cancer. Chest 81, 269-277.
30- Hetzel, M.R. , Nixon, c. , Edmondstone, W.M. , Mitchell, D.M. , Millard, F.J. Nanson E.M. , woodcock, A.A. , Bridges , C.E. , Humberstone , A.M, (1985) : laser therapy in 100 tracheobronchial tumours. Thorax 40, 341-345.
31- Hohenberger, w., Altendorf, A., Hermanek, p, Gall, F.P. (1986) : the laser in gastroenterology : malignant tumors in the lower gastro intedtinal tract-theapeutic alternatives. Endoscopy 18, 47-52.
32- Horvath, K.A. , smith, w,J. , laurence, R.G. , schoen, F.J. Appleyard, R.F. , cohn, L.H. (1995) : Recovery and viability of an acute myocardial infract after transmyocardial laser revascularization. J.Am. Coll. Cardiol 25, 258-283.
33- Hunter, J., Leonard, L., Wilson, R., snider , G., Dixon, J. (1984) : effects of low energy laser on wound healing in a porcine model. Laser surg. Med3, 285-290.
34- Jain, K.K. (1980): sutureless microvascular anastomosis using a neodymium- Yag laser.J. Microsurg. 1,436-439.
35- Karanov, S., shopova , M.,Getov , H.(1991): photodynamic therapy in gastrointestinal tumors. Laserssurg. Med. 11, 395-398.
36- Karu, T.I. (1987): photobiological fundamentals of low-power laser therapy IEEE J.Qu. Electron. QE- 23, 1703-1717.
37- Kelly, J.F., Snell, M.E. (1976): Hematoporphyrn derivative : a possible aid in the diagnosis and therapy of carcinema of the bladder. J.urol. 115, 150-151.
38- Kessel, D. (1987): Tumor localization and photosentization by derivatives of hematoporphyrin : a review. IEEE J.Qc. Electron. QE-23, 1718-1720.
39- Kinoshita , S. (1988) Fluorenscence of hematoporphyrin in living cells and in solution. J.photochem. photobiol- B2, 195-208.
40- Kavacs, I.B., Master, E., görög, P.(1974): stimulation of wound healing with laser beam in the rat. Experientia 30, 1275-1276.
41- Kubasova, T., kavacs, L., somosy. Z.,Unk, P., kokai, A.(1984): Biological effect of He-Ne laser : investiagations on functional and micromorphological alterations of cell membranes, in vitro. Laser surg. Med, 381-388.
42- Lipson, R., Baldes, E(1961): Hematoporphyrin derivative : a new aid for endoscopic detection of malignant disease. J.Thorac. cardiovasc. Surg. 42, 623-629.
43- Loh, c.s., Mac Robert, A.J., Bed well, J.Regula, j. , krasner, N., Bown, S.G.(1993): oral versus intravenous administration of 5-amino laevulinic acid for photodynamic therapy. Brit.J.cancer 68, 41-45.
44- Lundeberg, T., Hode, L., zhou, J. (1987): A comparative study of the pain-relieving effect of laser treatment and acupuncture. Acta phsiol. Scand. 131, 161-162.
45- Lyons, R.F., Abergel, R.P., white, R.A., Dwyer, R.M, Castel, J.C., uitto, J.(1987): Biostimulation of wound healing in vivo by a helium-neon laser. Ann. Plast. Surg. 18, 47-50.
46- Macha, H.-N., koch., stadler, M., Schumacher, w.krumhaar, D.(1987) New technique for treating occlusive and stenosing tumours of the trachea and main bronchi: endobronchial irradiation by high dose iridum 192 combined with laser canalisation. Thorax 42, 511-515.
47- Malik, z., Hanania, J., Nitzan , Y. (1990): Bacterical effects of photoactivated porphyrins- an alternative approche to antimicrobical drugs.J. photochem. Photobiol. 5, 281-293.
48- Marynissen, J.P.A., Jansen, H., star, W.M. (1989): Treatment system for whole bladder wall photodynamic therapy with in vivo monitoring and control of light dose rate and dose. J. urol. 142, 1351-1355.
49- Mathews – Roth, M.M. (1982): Beta- caroteno therapy for erythropoietic protoporphyria and other photosensitivity diseases. In: Science of photo medicine (Ed,.: Regan, J.D., prrish, J.A) , plenumpress, NewYork.
50- Mester, E.spiry, T. ,spiry, T., szende, B., Tota , J.G. (1971): Effect of laser rays on wound healing. Am.J. surg. 122, 532-532.
51- Moan, J., Christensen, T. (1981): photodynamic effects on human cells expoed to light in the presence of hematoporphyrin. Localisation of the active dye. Cancer let. 11, 209-214.
52- Nseyo, U.O. , Dougherty, T.J., Boyle, D.G., potter, W.R., wolf , R.,Huben, R., pontes, J.E. (1985): whole bladder photodynamic therapy for transitianal cell carcinoma of bladder. Urology 26, 274-280.
53- overholt, B., panjehpour, M., Tefftellar , E, Rose, M. (1993): photodynamic therapy for treatment of early adenocarcinoma in Barrett's esophagus. Gastrointest. Endosc. 39, 73-76.
54- Parrish, J., Anderson, R. (1983): considerations of selectivity in laser therapy. In: cutaneous laser therapy (Eds: Arndt, k-, Noc, J , Rosen, S.) , wiley & sons , New York.
55- Parsa, P., Jacques, S.L., Nishioka , N.S. (1989): optical properties of rat liver between 350 and 2200 nm. Appl. Opt. 28, 2325-2330.
56- Pickering, J.W., prahl, S.A., Van wieringen , N., Beek, J.F., sterenborg , H.J.C.M., vanGemert, M.J.C. (1993): Double- integrating – sphere system for measuring the optical properties of tissue. Appl.opt. 32, 399-410.
57- Prahl, S.A. , vanGemert, M.J.C. , Welch, A.J. (1993): Determining the optical properties of turbid media by using the adding- doubling method. Appl. Opt. 32, 559-568.
58- Quickenden , T,I., Daniels, L, L. (1993): Attempted biostimulation of division in saccharomyces cerevisiae using red coherent light. Photochem. photobiol, 57, 272-278.
59- Röder, B., Nather, D., Lewald , T,. Braune , M.,Freyer, W.,Nowak, c.(1990): photophysical properties and photodynamic avtivity in vivo of some tetrapyrroles. Biophys. Chem.. 35, 303-312.
60- Rasmussen, R.E., Hammer- Wilson , M., Berns,M.W. (1989): Mutation and sister chromatid exchang induction in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells pulsed excimer laser radiation at 193 nm and 308 nm and continous UV radiation at 254 nm. Photochem. Photobiol. 49,413-418.
61- Schnecken burger, H., könig, K., kunzi –Rapp, K., westphal-Frösch,C., Rück, A.(1993): Time-resolved in – vivo fluorescence of photosensitizing porphyrins.J.photochem photobiol. B21, 143-147.
62- Shumaker,B.P., Hetzel, F.W.(1987): clinical laser photodynamic therpy in the treatment of bladder carcinoma. photochem. Photobiol. 46, 899-901.
63- Spikes, J.D. (1986): phthalocyanines as photosensitizers in biological systems and for the PDT of tumors. Photochem. photobiol. 43,691-699.
64- Taube, S.,Piironen, J., Ylipavalniemi, P.(1980): Helium- neon laser therapy in the prevention of post- operative swelling and pain after wisdom tooth extraction proc. Finn. Dent. Scoc. 86,23- 27.
65- Taybr, C.R, Gange, R,W., Dover, J.S., flotte. T.J., Gonzalez, E., Michaud, N., Anderson, R.R. (1990): Treatment of tattoos by Q-switched ruby laser. A does-respoce study. Arch. Dermatol. 126, 893-899.
66- Trauner, K., Nishioka, N., patel, D.(1990): pulsed holmium: yttrium- aluminumgarnet (Ho:YAG) laser ablation of fibrocartinge and articular cartilage. Am.J. sports Med.18, 316-320.
67- Weishaupt, K.R. Gomer, C.J., Dougherty, T.J. (1986): Identification of singlet oxygen as the toxic agent in photoactivation of a murine tumor. Cancer Res. 36, 2326-2331.
68- Wilson, M., Dobson, J., Harvey, W.(1993): sensitization of streptoccus sanguis to killing by light from a helium/ neon laser. Laser Med. Sci 8, 69-73.
69- Clinical results of wound- healing stimulation with laser and Experimental studies of the action mechanism.(1985).
70- Dr. Emil lliev (Medical Academy, Sofia, Bulgaria Scientific institute of Dermatology and Venerology). conceptions about the mechanisms of Action of low- intensity Helium-Neon lasers. 1987.
71- J.A. parrish (Department of Dermatology , Harvard medical school). . (1982).
72- G.GALDERHEAD, Toshio OHSHIRO, yoshio KATO. (Department of plastic and Reconstructive surgery keio university, japen.) . (1982).
73- . (1984). The scientific committee of TOKYO judo Bonestter Association.
74- Golman, L. . (1986).
76- Abergel, P.R., et al. UCLA school of medicine.(1984).
78- Abergel, P.R., et al. . Journal of investigative Dermatology , vol.82.No.4, (1984).
79- ESSMAN, W.B. . Queens colleye. New York (1984).
80- American Journal of Acupuncture vol. 12 No. 1, January –March . (1987)
81- Acupuncture & Elecro- therapeuties., INT. Y., vol.5. pp. 297
82- JohnA.Goldman. M.D. (department of medicine, Division of Rheumatology – immunology. EMORY university). . (1980)
83- Diether HAINA, Reinhold BRUNNER, michael LANDTHALER. Dermatology Clinik and Policlinik of munchen university west Germany .(1981).
84- Bader, M., Dittler, H,J., ultsch, B.Ries, G., siewert, I.R. (1986): palliative treatment of malignant stenoses of the upper gastro intestinal tract using a combination of Laser and after loading therapy. Endoscopy 18, 27-31.
85- Bailes, J.E., cozzens, J.W., Hudson, A.R., kline, D.G., ciric, I, Gianaris, p., Bernstein, L.P., Hunter, D. (1989): Laser- assisted nerve repair in primates. J.Neorosurg 71, 266-272.
86- Boulnois, J-L. (1986): photophysical processes in recent medical laser developments: a review. Lasers Med. Sci.1, 47-66.
87- Felix , M.P., Ellis, A.T. (1971): Laser-induced liquid break down- a step – by- step account. Appl. Phys. Lett. 19, 484-486.
88- Fradin, D.W., Bloembergen, N., Letellier, J.P. (1973 a): Dependence of laser- induced break down field strength on pulse duration. Appl. phys. Let.22, 635-637.
89- Hussein, H.(1986): Anovel fiberoptic laser probe for treatment of occlusive vessel disease. Proc. SPIE 605, 59-66.
90- Jacques, S.L., Alter, C.A., prahl, S.A (1987 b): Angular dependence of He - Ne laser light scattering by human dermis. Lasers life sci.1 , 309-333.
91- Jain, K.K.(1980): stureless microvascular anastomosis using a Neody mium- yag laser. J. microsurg. 1, 436-439.
92- Machemer, R., Lacqua, H.(1978): Alogical approach to the treatment of massive periretinal proliferation. Ophthalmology 85, 584-593.
93- Membust, w.k. (1993): Benign prostatic hypertrophy: standards and guidelines. In: Alternate methods in the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia (Eds: Romans. N.A. Vaughan. E.D.). springer- verlag, Belin Heidelberg, New York.
94- Marchesini, R., Bertoni, A., Andreola, S., Melloni, E., sichirollo, A.E. (1989): Extinction and absorption coefficients and scattring phase functions of human tissues in vitro. Appl. Opt. 28, 2318-2324.
95- Mc caughen, J.S., Bethel, B.H., Johnston, T., Janssen, w.(1985): Effect of low-dose argon laser irradiation on rate of wound closure. Lasers surg. Med.5, 607-617.
96- Patel, D.D. (1988): Nd:YAG laser in oral cavity cancer report of 200 cases minimum follow up of one year. In: Laser- opto electronics in medicine (Ed: waidelich,w.). springer- verlag, Belin, Heidel berg, New York.
97- Roynesdal, A.K., Bjorland, T., Barkvoll, p., Haanaes, H.R. (1993): the effect of soft- laser application on postoperative pain and swelling A double-blind crossver study. Int. J. oral Maxillofac. Surg. 22, 242-245.
98- Stern, R.H.(1974): Dentistry and the laser. In:Laser applications in medicine and biology (Ed. Wolbarsht, M.L.). plenum press New York.
99. Coutoid Pc steropoulous NK. Paparasiloiu V.Biostimulation of Wound healing in vivo by a Helium-Neonlaser, Ann Plastic surg 1996; 27: 45-52.
100. Mester E, Spiry T. Effect of laser rays on wound healing. Amj surg 1971; 122: 532-535.
101. Mester E, Jaszasagi-Nagy E. The effect laser radiation on wound healding and collagen synthesis. Studia Biophysica 1973; 227-230.
102. Mester E, Mester AF.The biomedical effects of laser application. Laser Surg Med. 1985; 5: 31-39.
103. Saparia D.Glassberg E.Lyons RF. Abergel RP. Demonstration of elevated type I and type III procollagon mRNA levels in cutaneous wounds treated with He-Nelaser. Biochem. Biophys Res Commu. 1986; 138: 1123-1128.
104. Enweneka Cs. Ultrastructural morphometry of membrane bound intracytoplasmic collagen fibrils in tendon exposed to He-Nelaser bean. Tissue cell. 1992; 24: 511-523.
105. Abergel RP. Meeker CA. Lam Ts. Control of connective tissue metabolism by lasers. Recent developments and Future Propects. J AM Acad Dermatol. 1984; 11: 1142-1150.
106. Abergel Rplyon RF. Castel JC. Biostimulation of wound healing by lasers, Expermental approaches in animal models and in fibroblasts cultures, J. Dermatol oncol. 1987; 13: 127-133.
107. Cowen D: Tardiea C, Chubert M, Resbeut M, Franquin JC. low energy helium-Neon laser in the prevention of oral mucosits in patients undergoing bone marrow transplant. Int J Radiat oncol Biol Phys. 1997; 38(4): 697-703.
108. Ameil D. Kleimer JB. The phenomenon of ligamentization. Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction with autogenous Patellar tendons. Jorthop Res. 1986; 4: 162-172.
109. Basford JR. Low intensity laser theraphy. Still not an established. Clinical tool. Laser surg. Med. 1995; 16: 331-342.
110. Babapour R. Classberg E. Low-energy systems. Clinic Permatol. 1995; 13: 87-90.
111. Smith RJ, Moore DND, Birndorf M, cluck C, Hammond D. The effect of low energy laser on skin flap survival in the rat porcine animal model. Plast Reconstr surg 1992: 89(2): 306-314.
112. Basford JR Hallman Ho, sheffield CG. Mackey Cl. Comparison of cold-quartz ultraviolet, low energy laser and occlusion in wound healing in a swine model. Archphys Med Rehabil 1986; 16: 151-152.
113. Passarella S.Gasamassima E. Increase of Proton electrochemical Potential and ATP synthesis in rat liver mitochondria irradiated in vitro by He-Ne laser. FEBS lett. 1984; 175: 95-99.
114. Bisht D, cupta SC, Mital VP, sharma P.Effect of low power radiation on healing of open skin wounds in rats. Indian J Med Res 1994; 100: 43-46.
115. Kana JS, Hut Schenreiter C. Haina D, Waidelish W.Effect of low power density laser radiation on healing of open skin wounds in rats. Ann sung 1981; 116: 293-297.
116. Pass HI. Photodynamic Therapy in oncology: mechanisms and clinical use J Natl cancer Inst 1993; 85: 443-56.
117. Henderson BW, Dougherty TJ. How dose photodynamic Therapy work? Pothochem photobiol. 1992; 55: 145-57.
118. Fisher et al. Clincal and Preclinical Photodynamic Therapy. Wiley-liss In.c. 1996; PP. 340-68.
119. Girotti, A.W. Photodynamic lipid peroxidation in biological system. Photochem. Photobil. 1990: 51, 497-509.
120. Kennedy JC. Pottier RH. Photodynamic therapy with endogenous protoporphyrin Ix: basic principles and presentclincal experience. J Photochem Photobiol B. 1990; 143-148.
121. Daniell MD. Hill JS. A history of Photodynamic theraphy. Aust NZ J surg 1991; 61:340-48.
122. Stables GI, Ash DV. Photodynamic therapy: Concer Treatment Reviews 1995; 21:311-23.
123. Dougherty TJ, Gomer CY, Henderson BW. Photodynamic therapy. J Natl cancer Inst 1998; 90: 889-905.
124. Dilkes MG, Alusi G, Djaezeri By. The treatment of head and neck cancer with Photodynamic theraphy: clinical experience. Rev contemp pharmacother 1999; 10: 47-57.
125. Morton C.A. Treating basal cell carcinoma has Photodynamic therapy come of age? British J Dermato 2001; 145:1-2
126. Kalka K, Merk H, Mokhtar H. Photodynamic Therapy in dermatology J Am Acad Dermatol 2000; 42:389-413.
127. Morton CA, Whitehurst C, McColl JH et al. Photodynamic theraphy for basal cell carcinoma: effect of tumor thickness and duration of photosensitizer application on responce. Arch Dermatol 1998; 134: 248-9.
128. Morton, Colin A. McColl JH. Moore JV. Mackie RM. Photodynamic Therapy for large or Multiple Patches of Bowen Disease and Basal Cell Carcinoma. Arch Dermato, 2001: 137(3), 319-324.
129. Svanberg K, Anderson T, Killander D, et al. Photodynamic therapy of nonmelanoma malignant tumours of skin using topical 5- aminolaevulinic acid sensitisation and laser irradiation. Br J Dermatol. 1994; 130: 743-751.
130. Stables GI, Stringer MR, Robinson DV, Ash DV. Large Pathches of Bowen's disease treated by topical aminolaevulinic acid Photodynamic Therapy. Br J Dermatol. 1997; 136: 957-960.
131. Telfer NR, Colver GB, Bowers PW. Guidelines for the management of basal cell carcinoma. Br JD ematol. 1999; 141: 415-423.
132. Albright SD. Treatment of skin cancer using multiple modalities. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1982; 7: 143-171.
133. Cox NH, Dyson P. Wound healing on the lower leg after radiotherapy or cryotherapy of Bowen's disease and other maligment skin lesions. Br J Dermatol. 1995; 133: 60-65.
134. Morton CA, whitehurst C, Moseley H et al. Comparison of Photodynamic therapy with cryotherapy in the treatment of Bowen's disease Br J Dermatol 1996; 135: 766-71.
135. Wang I, Bendose N, Klinteberg CAF et al. Photodynamic therapy VS. cryosurgery of basal cell carcinomas: results of a phase III clinical trial. Br J Dermatol 2001; 144: 832-40.
136. Mc Caughan JS Jr. Gug JT. Hicts W, Laufman L. Nims TA, Walker J. Photodynamic Therapy for Cutaneous and Subcutaneous Maligment neoplasm. Arch surg 1989; 124: 211-216.
137. Carruh JAS. Photodynamic Therapy of tumors involving the skin and head and neck. In Morstyn G, Kay AH, eds: Photodynamic therapy of cancer, chur, switzerland 1990, PP 173-184.
138. Wilson BD, Mang T, stoll H, Jones C, Cooper M, Dougherty TJ. Photodynamic therapy for the treatment of basal cell carcinoma Arch Dermatol 1992: 128:1597-1601.
139. Khan SA, Doughtery TJ, Mang Ts. An evulation of photodynamic therapy in the management of cutaneous metastases of breast canser. Eur J cancer 1993; 29 A: 1686-1690.
140. Foraman D.S., Regeneration of motor axons in the sciatic nerve studied by labeling with axonal transported radioactive proteins, Brain Res. 1978; 156:123-225.
141. Rochkind S. Quaknine GE,. Low-power laser effect on pelipheral and central nervous system. Neurol Res. 1992; 14(1):2-11.
142. Walter GF, Ascher PW., & ingolitsh E. The effects of CO2laser and Nd-YAG on the certral and Peripheral nervous systems, and cerebral blood vessels J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1984; 47(7): 745-749.
143. Babarpur R., Glassbeey F,. Low energy laser system. Clinic Dermatol. 1995; 13: 87-90.
144. Rochkind S., Nissan M., Razon N., Schwartz, M., & Barta, A. Response of peripheral nerves to He-Ne laser. Lasersurg Med. 1987; 441-443.
145. Schwarts M,. Doron A., Erlish, M. Lavie V., Benbasat, S., Belkin, M., & Rochkind, S. Effects of low energy He-Ne Laser irridation on posttrumatic degeneration of adult rabit optic nerve. Laser Surg 1987; 7(1): 51-55.
146. Rochkind S., Lubert R., New methods of treatment of severly injuerd sciatic nerve and spinal cord. Acta Neurochir suppl. 1988:91-93.
147. Osedo M., An experimental study on nerve repair using carbone dioxide laser. Nippon seikegcka Zasshi. 1988; 6(2): 653-663.
148. Seifert V., solke D., Laser assisted reconstruction of the occulomotor nerve. Neuro surg. 1989; 25(4):579-582.
149. Yogev D., Todorov AT. Qi P., Fendler JH., & Rodziewicz GS. Laser induced recconection of severed axons Biochem Biophys Res commun 1991; 180(2): 874-880.
150. Terzis J., Smith K. Repair of several Peripheral nerves. Exp. Neurol. 1987; 96: 672-680.
151. Ochi M., Osedo M., Ikuta Y., Nerve anastomsis using a low output CO2 Laser on fibrin membrane. Laser surg Med. 1995; 17(1): 64-73.
152. Menovsky T., Van Den Bergh Weerman, M., & Beek, JF. Effects of CO2 milliwatt laser on peripheral nervs. Part I: A Dose-Reponse study Micro surg. 1996; 17 (10): 562-567.
153. Lauto A., Trickett, R., Malik, R. , Dawes, Jm., & Owen, ER. Laser
154. Tuner J. Hode L: Low level laser therapy- clinical practice and scientific Background. Prima Book AB. Spjutvagen 11.77232 Gangesberg. Sweden. 1999. ISBN 91-630-7616-0.
155. Chio chung-chin: cytogenic effects of low level laser irradiation of human leukocytes. Laser therapy. 1990.2:111. Schindl L etal: Infuence of low power laser irradiation on arthus phenomenon induced in rabbit cornea. Laser therapy 1994:1: 23.
156. Calderhead R.G: A study of the possible haemorrhagic effects of extended infrared diode laser irradiation on encapsulated and exposed synovial membrance articular tissue in the rat laser therapy. 1992:2:65.
157. Yoshida K et al: The effect of low power semiconductor laser to the stellate ganglion. IX conger Internat soc laser surg. Med Anaheim cal. 1991.
158. Saldo I et al: Effects of GaAs - Laser combined with radiotherapy on murine sarcoma depends on tumor size. Laser surg Med. 1989: suppl 1-40.
159. Henderson A R: laser radiation hazards optics and laser Technology. 1984:2:75.
160. Laser world - an LLLT Guide: http://www.laser.nu or http://www.laserworld.org.